Aquatic environments and blue physical activity, such as swimming, canoeing, and surfing, are objects of growing interest in social sciences research as sources of wellbeing and motor learning. Blue physical activity (BPA) offers health, social, and educational benefits to individuals, with the potential to support long-term physical activity behaviors. Self-efficacy beliefs are referred to in literature as a determinant individual factor in maintaining and increasing physical activity (PA) behaviors throughout life. Self-efficacy is associated with increased PA and lower declines in PA levels among children and adolescents. Understanding the sources of self-efficacy and their role in developing effective intervention programs is crucial for promoting physical activity. This paper aims to explore the concept of PA self-efficacy, its sources and its theoretical background. A set of specific research questions for a deeper understanding of the role of self-efficacy in studies and programs designed to promote BPA among children and adolescents. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and the concept of self-efficacy are discussed in this paper, explaining how self-efficacy influences human behavior through mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. While the potential benefits of BPA for health, wellbeing, and social behaviors are acknowledged, the need for more research on the environmental, behavioral, and personal determinants influencing BPA adherence and maintenance is uncovered. The integration of theoretical models and ecological approaches is necessary to develop effective programs for promoting BPA and preventing BPA-related injuries, thereby improving research methodologies and enhancing the impact of interventions. Therefore, this paper presents a set of guiding research questions to support the exploration of potential weight determinants of PA in aquatic environments.

Keywords: Self-efficacy, blue physical activity, motor learning, social cognitive theory, behavioral change, intervention programs.

PA, physical activity; BPA, blue physical activity

Aquatic environments and blue physical activities (e.g., swimming, canoeing, rowing, sailing, diving, surfing) are popular and perceived as accessible, offering a source of wellbeing.^1,2 "Blue physical activity" (BPA) is understood within the scope of this paper as physical activity (PA) in, on, under, and nearby water, such as at the coast, sea, river, lake, beach, waterway, and any facility with surface water.^3,4 BPA has been studied as a relevant mechanism to enhance health and wellbeing.^4–10

Research on aquatic environments as a context for motor learning and physical activity (PA) is scarce in motor learning and development literature.^11,12 However, this is a research topic of growing interest within the social sciences and humanities.^13,14 Recent studies highlight health benefits, primarily focused on mental health and wellbeing,⁷ resulting from contact with the so-called blue spaces. The focus on understanding BPA as a mediator of teaching and learning processes is rare; however, recent studies reveal positive results in the field of education.^15,16

The practice of regular physical activity (PA) throughout life is considered one of the protective factors of health. At this level, studies on the correlates and determinants of physical activity (PA) have identified the role of self-efficacy beliefs as relevant to maintaining and increasing PA behaviors at different stages of life.^17–21 Despite the increasing interest of the social sciences in the potential of human-blue space interaction for human health and wellbeing, research initiatives focused on the environmental, behavioral, and personal determinants that can influence adherence to, and maintenance of BPA behaviors are still scarce in the literature. Self-efficacy is a well-established construct in behavioral change studies related to physical activity (PA) adherence and maintenance. Thus, it is appropriate to question whether self-efficacy maintains its impact as a determinant when specifically exploring physical activity (PA) in aquatic environments and safety.

Through a review of theoretical and empirical literature, this paper aims to explore the concept of PA self-efficacy, its sources, and theoretical background. The final topic of this paper presents a set of research questions for a deeper understanding of the role of self-efficacy in studies and programs designed to promote BPA among children and adolescents.

The Theory of Social Learning²² posits that the dynamic interplay between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors shapes human thought and actions. Thus, instead of simply reacting to the environment as the behaviorist perspective predicts, this social perspective of learning understands the subject as a goal-oriented being, capable of learning by observing other subjects and proactively involved in changing the environments with which he/she interacts, emphasizing the processes of vicarious experience, symbolism, and self-regulation.

In the 1980s, Bandura's research began to adopt a more holistic approach to human learning, including an understanding of cognition's role in social learning. The Social Cognitive Theory,²³ derived from the principles of learning through observation, intrinsic reinforcement, and the adoption of models, is the basis of the Social Learning Theory. This theory emphasizes cognitive, vicarious, self-regulating, and self-reflective processes in changing and adapting human behavior.²⁴ It favors a causal model involving a triad of reciprocal determinism between behavior, cognition, other personal factors, and environmental influences, where these factors interact to influence one another.²³ In this triad, human function is the product of the interaction between interpersonal influences, individual behavior, and environmental forces that act upon them.²⁵

The concept of self-efficacy,²⁶ closely related to Social Cognitive Theory (CST) as an important mediator of behavioral change, can offer a parsimonious explanation of how and why human behavior changes.²⁷ The perception of self-efficacy refers to the beliefs that individuals have about their ability to perform a specific task successfully in a given context.^24,28 These influence the construction of thought, feelings, and how individuals motivate and behave,²⁸ being the foundation for motivation, wellbeing, and personal success.²⁴ The theory of self-efficacy provides clear Guidelines on how to develop human efficacy. It adopts an inclusive perspective on change, suggesting that all individuals can achieve the desired levels of competence and succeed if they have the necessary opportunities and self-efficacy to pursue their goals.²⁷

Beliefs about effectiveness are judgments of future cognitive, goal-referenced, context-specific competence that are relatively malleable due to task dependence.^24,27 For the development of self-efficacy beliefs, we admit four forms of influence known as "sources of self-efficacy": enactive mastery experience, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective states.²⁸

Mastery experience

This source represents the perception of the effect that a highly successful experience has on increasing self-efficacy, especially when complex tasks are surmounted with little assistance or when achievement in learning is early and with few setbacks.²⁹ Fostering mastery experiences is the most effective way to create a sense of self-efficacy.^24,26,28 The experience of mastery refers to the effects that individuals interpret as a result of the tasks and activities they have developed in pursuit of future tasks based on the beliefs they have formed.^24,26 In general, results interpreted as success increase self-efficacy, and those interpreted as failures lower the level of self-efficacy,²⁴ particularly if they occur early in the course of the event and do not reflect a lack of effort or the existence of adverse external circumstances.³⁰ However, it is necessary to reinforce that once strong beliefs of self-efficacy are developed through repetitive success, the negative impact of occasional failures is likely to be reduced.^26,28 This is an important aspect for planning and pedagogical intervention in the early stages of the teaching-learning process: developing self-efficacy beliefs early in the learning process can provide resilience in the face of occasional failures.

Developing a feeling of self-efficacy through mastery experiences implies exposure to new experiences and is, therefore, not a matter of adopting routines. Instead, it involves acquiring cognitive, behavioral, and self-regulatory tools for creating and executing new forms of action in ever-changing circumstances.²⁸

Vicarious experience

Individuals can also form their sense of self-efficacy by watching others perform tasks. Vicarious experience is particularly relevant to the development of self-efficacy when individuals observe role models who they believe are at a similar level of skill development and performance to their own.²⁴ The impact of modeling on personal efficacy beliefs is strongly influenced by the perception of similarity with the model, i.e., the greater the similarity between the observer and the model, the more persuasive the successes and failures of the model will be for the former.²⁸ In practice, watching these models develop successful performances without adverse consequences generates expectations in observers about their ability to perform with equal success on comparable tasks.^26,30 When the model performs poorly, the observer's efficacy expectations decrease,²⁶ except in circumstances where the observer considers themselves more competent than the model.²⁹

Verbal persuasion

Through suggestion, people can be led to successfully deal with situations/tasks that they have felt were difficult in the pas or tasks that they have previously found difficult.²⁶ This source of self-efficacy is differentiated into two subresources: persuasion by others and positive self-talk, also known as self-persuasion, which are found to be reliable sources of self-efficacy in various exercise domains.²¹

Although verbal persuasion alone has a limited impact on developing enduring self-efficacy beliefs, it can contribute to successful performances. This is justified by the fact that a persuasive impulse in self-efficacy leads an individual to initiate the task, try new strategies, or invest in achieving success in a committed way.³⁰

Effective persuaders do not issue criticism or gratuitous "praise"; they must cultivate people's beliefs and abilities while ensuring that the vision of success conveyed is achievable.²⁴ The development of enduring self-efficacy beliefs through verbal persuasion is possible if the persuader is credible, trustworthy, experienced,³¹ known as a specialist,³² and their intervention is realistic.³⁰

People who are socially persuaded that they have the necessary skills to master and overcome difficulties and who are supported to take effective action are likely to be willing to mobilize greater effort than those who receive only support to take action.²⁶ In the same way that positive persuaders may work to encourage and empower self-efficacy beliefs, negative persuaders may have a "defeatist" effect, weakening them.³⁰

Physiological and affective states

Anxiety, stress, or emotional excitability are other types of internal information that can affect the perception of self-efficacy to deal with situations perceived as a threat.²⁶ People can define their degree of confidence through the emotional state they experience while contemplating a particular action.²⁴ Stress, anxiety, and intense mood reactions are perceived as signs of vulnerability to poor performance.²⁸ Because physiological and affective states influence the perception of competence in dealing with events and are perceived as a sign of vulnerability, people are more likely to expect success when not in intense physiological or emotional states.³⁰ However, it is not the intensity of emotion or physical reaction that is critical; it is how the individual perceives and interprets it. The perception of competence can affect susceptibility to changes in emotional and affective states.²⁶

Self-efficacy beliefs filter between prior determinants such as mental and physical abilities, prior experiences, and other motivational constructs, and the subsequent adoption of desired behaviors.²⁴

The value of self-efficacy beliefs in encouraging physical activity

Levels of PA throughout the life course are influenced by individual, behavioral, social, and environmental factors.^17,19,20 Individual factors, such as gender, health status, self-efficacy, and motivation, are widely studied factors associated with physical activity levels.¹⁷ Notably, the perception of self-efficacy, as an individual factor, has often been pointed out as a relevant variable in the study of PA correlates, particularly in children and young people.^17–20

Craggs et al.¹⁸ in a systematic review of the determinants of PA behavior change in children and adolescents, reported that among children aged 10 to 13 years, higher levels of previous PA and self-efficacy are associated with lower declines in PA levels in subsequent stages of life. Among adolescents, the highest levels of perceived behavioral control,^17,18 support for PA,³¹ and self-efficacy^18–20,31 are associated with lower declines in PA,¹⁸ with self-efficacy emerging as the dominant predictor of intention or even increases in adolescents' PA levels,³² followed by peer support.³¹ At this stage of adolescence, the interaction between self-perception and the support of friends appears to be a significant aspect in the development of effective intervention programs. At this level, Hamilton et al.³¹ reveal that in adolescents with higher levels of perceived self-efficacy, the intention to practice PA was independent of support, while for adolescents with lower levels of perceived self-efficacy, the support of friends seems to partially compensate for this lack of impact on the intentions to practice vigorous PA.

Studies on the effects of self-efficacy beliefs on behavior change are numerous. However, the available knowledge about the sources of self-efficacy associated with the practice of PA and the ways to enhance this psychological construct is less explored by research.^21,33 Positive changes in self-efficacy are associated with increased objectively measured physical activity behaviors (34). Therefore, this knowledge about the impact of different sources of self-efficacy on changing PA behaviors is claimed to be essential for the development of effective intervention programs.

Although theoretically, no changes are expected between the use of sources of self-efficacy at different stages of life since the theory of self-efficacy is not a developmental theory, studies have shown that the expression of sources of self-efficacy changes with age^33,35 and consider changing the weight of these different sources in different contexts.^35,36

A systematic review with meta-analysis by Ashford et al.³³ on ways to modify feelings of self-efficacy revealed that vicarious experience and feedback on past performances are two sources of self-efficacy that, when included in intervention programs, are associated with higher levels of self-efficacy in physically active healthy adults. However, contrary to previous studies,^21,26,30 the mastery experience, in which adherence to a PA goal gradually became more difficult, was associated with lower levels of self-efficacy.³³ This data reported by Ashford et al.³³ instills the reflection on the mechanisms by which this phenomenon may occur. Though this, it is concluded that the increase in the level of demand in the early stages of learning can be harmful, but that in the long run, in parallel with the use of other sources of self-efficacy such as vicarious experience and feedback on past performances or those of others, it can be decisive. Therefore, applying the most appropriate teaching strategies (e.g., developing pedagogical progressions, proposing challenging yet achievable objectives, utilizing other practitioners as teaching agents, and employing the reciprocal teaching style) should be a concern for the promoters of PA interventions in the pre-interactive and interactive phases. Moreover, the effects intended to be achieved in the short and long term through the intervention program have also to be considered since, according to several authors^{21,24,26,27,35-37} the achievement of meaningful and appropriate goals only has a strong effect on self-efficacy beliefs if people attribute success to their actions and effort. On the contrary, verbal persuasion by others is presented as a source of self-efficacy that has a neutral or even negative effect, as attempts to persuade others of their abilities might be interpreted as control or pressure.²¹ Verbal personation positively affects behavior change mainly if promoted in parallel with other sources of self-efficacy.^21,23 Among children and adolescents, experiences of mastery in past performances and vicarious experiences are a source of self-efficacy for PA that are consistently identified in the literature as relevant.³⁵

Perceptions of self-efficacy are not stable personality traits but instead represent an evolution of perceived ability concerning specific contexts, goals,²⁷ types of behaviors to be investigated,³⁸ or the stage of development of individuals.³⁵ In parallel, it is well known that contextual factors, including social and environmental influences, may also impact the adherence and maintenance of PA behaviors.^19,38,39 These two postulates provide a valid justification for advocating the study of possible specific correlates and determinants of BPA.

Studies on the impact of exposure to blue spaces have a growing interest and importance in social sciences and humanities.^40,41 However, for most coastal countries, the potential benefits of interacting with oceans and coastal or inland waterways are not yet fully understood. Existing studies on this topic have focused on the effects on the health and wellbeing of individuals, with relevant results in terms of the potential for restoration of global promotion of human health^7,41,42 and in the restoration and preservation of natural environments through the feeling of connection and belonging that is enhanced in the interaction of human beings with natural aquatic environments.^13,43,44

Access to blue spaces for PA, such as surfing and open water swimming, has only recently emerged as an important research topic.^44,45,46 BPA has been proven to improve adaptive capacity,¹ overall physical fitness,¹⁵ the development of identity and a sense of belonging,⁴⁷ the adoption of active citizenship behaviors, the reduction of antisocial behaviors, and an increase in health levels.^14,47 When framed in Physical Education and School Sports, BPA can generate physical, mental, educational, and social benefits for children and young people.¹⁵ Similarly, population-specific intervention programs have shown evidence of improving health indicators, motor behavior, and prosocial behaviors in socially vulnerable children and youth^16,48 or with motor and intellectual difficulties.⁴⁹

Despite the increasing interest of the social sciences in the potential of human-blue space interaction for human health and wellbeing, research initiatives focused on the environmental, behavioral, and personal determinants that can influence adherence to and maintenance of BPA behaviors are still scarce in the literature.

When in interaction, BPA Self-efficacy and aquatic safety self-efficacy may constitute two relevant indicators for both BPA promotion and aquatic safety behaviors. Indeed, while it is pertinent to promote access to aquatic environments and enable beneficial human-blue spaces’ interactions to enhance physical and mental wellbeing, personal development, and promote social/environmental sustainability, it is equally important to recognize the potential risk of injury associated with being in or near water. BPA self-efficacy can potentially influence drowning risk, but it is not a simple cause-and-effect relationship. Thus, while providing opportunities for individuals to develop their BPA self-efficacy through aquatic education, professionals must understand and attend to the need to promote the development of individual factors (i.e., risk assessment, knowledge (safety rules, environment dynamic), physical and emotional self-regulation, aquatic locomotion skills) along with other social and environmental factors to prevent aquatic-related accidents. Increasing awareness and enhancing water safety risk strategies for youth demands addressing the underlying causes of underestimation of risk and overestimation of ability (BPA Self-efficacy) as well.⁵⁰ A person with high self-efficacy may believe they are more capable in the water than they are. This overconfidence could lead to taking unnecessary risks, such as venturing into deep water, swimming in strong currents, or neglecting safety precautions.⁵¹ Also, if someone trusts their swimming abilities too much, they might be less likely to wear a flotation device, heed warning signs, or recognize signs of fatigue, increasing the risk of accidents.

Through a literature review on self-efficacy and social cognitive theory, this paper examines the significance of this construct in PA and its potential impact on promoting blue physical activity (BPA) while also acknowledging the necessity of preventing and mitigating aquatic accidents. From this exploration exercise, four main research questions emerged for future study:

1. Will we be able to find different results when specifically focused on studying the barriers and facilitators of BPA?
2. Admitting triadic reciprocity personal-behavioral-environmental factors, do the specific characteristics of aquatic environments influence the self-efficacy sources that individuals at different stages of life preferentially use to develop feelings of self-efficacy?
3. Regarding aquatic education, what forms of organization and management of the teaching-learning process can most influence the development of positive feelings of self-efficacy in the face of the intention to adhere to and remain in BPA?
4. What forms of teaching-learning process organization and management can most influence the development of safety self-efficacy and contribute to preventing drowning as a high-incidence water-related injury?
5. How can we effectively prevent drowning and other aquatic-related injuries while encouraging engagement in BPA?

Despite the emerging importance of studying BPA as a mediator of individual and environmental health, studies focusing on the environmental and personal determinants that influence adherence to and maintenance of PA behaviors in blue spaces are still rare. Integrating theoretical models that help explain changes in health behaviors, such as social theory, and considering ecological models to understand better the impact of environmental factors on behavioral change will be crucial in developing future programs to promote BPA and prevent BPA-related injuries. Meanwhile, as contexts and other variables, such as age, can influence the weight of each self-efficacy source in the development of self-efficacy, studies on BPA and BPA-related injury prevention (e.g., drowning, spinal trauma) should explore the impact of different self-efficacy sources on context-specific emergent data.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

None.

This study did not receive direct funding. The author was supported by FCT-Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P. under Grant 2021.06516. BD for the development of a doctoral project.

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