This article explores the concept of space colonization through the lens of architecture, with a focus on how design practices are evolving to support long-term human habitation beyond Earth. The idea of living in space has long captivated human imagination and has progressively transformed from speculative thought into a legitimate area of scientific and architectural inquiry. As technological capabilities have advanced—particularly since the onset of the digital age in the 1950s—concepts once considered surreal have increasingly come to be seen as attainable. A pivotal moment in this trajectory was the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969, which not only marked a monumental achievement in space exploration but also reinforced the plausibility of space colonization.

With continued technological development, the acquisition of extraterrestrial data has become significantly more efficient, enabling researchers and designers to gain insights into the environmental conditions of other planets. This access to information has prompted architects and designers to conceptualize entirely new forms of habitat typologies suited to extreme and unfamiliar contexts. Given that one of the fundamental responsibilities of architecture is to create habitable environments for human life, organizations such as NASA have initiated interdisciplinary collaborations with architectural professionals to explore how humans might sustainably inhabit extraterrestrial environments.

Design proposals in this field primarily aim to address the challenges posed by harsh environmental conditions, including water scarcity, elevated radiation levels, and toxic atmospheric compositions. Consequently, proposed structures must meet specific criteria: they must be sustainable, recyclable, and capable of autonomous construction—particularly given the limited availability of materials and the logistical constraints inherent to space environments.

To examine these developments, this study adopts a narrative literature review methodology. Sources analyzed include academic databases, space agency publications, and notable architectural proposals such as NASA’s Mars exploration initiatives, AI SpaceFactory’s MARSHA habitat, and BIG Architects’ Mars Science City. By synthesizing findings across these sources, the study identifies key thematic trends in material innovation, habitat design, and sustainable construction strategies. The following sections outline these findings in detail, offering a critical discussion of how architecture is being redefined in preparation for a multi-planetary future.

Keywords: extraterrestrial architecture, space habitat, architectural design

Since the earliest stages of human civilization, the expansion of territorial boundaries has been a defining feature of societal development. From the formation of small settlements to the rise of cities and nations, this drive for growth has extended beyond Earth into aspirations for space colonization. The concept of establishing human life beyond our planet—once confined to the realm of science fiction—has increasingly become a tangible objective, driven by advances in science, engineering, and design.

The emergence of private space enterprises in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has accelerated this trajectory. Notable milestones, such as SpaceX’s 2020 crewed mission under NASA’s Commercial Crew Program and the planned Mars missions, have transformed space exploration into a commercially and technologically viable endeavor. These developments have revitalized discussions on the long-term habitation of extraterrestrial environments, including the design of sustainable settlements on Mars. Innovations such as reusable launch systems, exemplified by SpaceX’s Falcon 9—capable of significantly reducing mission costs—have further strengthened the feasibility of large-scale colonization.

In this context, architecture emerges not merely as a supporting element but as a central discipline in enabling extraterrestrial habitation. Extreme conditions in space—radiation exposure, temperature extremes, resource scarcity, and social isolation—demand innovative and adaptive design strategies. Contemporary architectural proposals in this field converge on three fundamental principles: minimizing launch and construction costs through in-situ resource utilization, establishing sustainable supply chains for materials and energy, and developing legal and regulatory frameworks for resource management.

This study examines space colonization from an architectural perspective, addressing the central research question: How can architects adapt materials, construction methods, and habitat typologies to create safe, sustainable, and habitable environments in extraterrestrial settings? To answer this, a narrative literature review was conducted, synthesizing historical mission concepts, environmental analyses, and architectural proposals into an integrated framework that connects design strategies to the unique demands of off-world living.

This study employed a narrative literature review methodology to examine how architectural strategies can address the challenges of extraterrestrial habitation. The aim was to identify and synthesize existing knowledge on environmental constraints, material innovations, construction techniques, and habitat typologies relevant to space colonization, with a focus on Mars as a primary case.

Research purpose

The primary research question guiding this study was:

How can architects adapt materials, construction techniques, and habitat designs to ensure safe, sustainable, and functional living conditions beyond Earth?

This question required a multidisciplinary approach, combining insights from architectural theory, design practice, and related technical domains. The objective was not only to document current proposals but also to evaluate them in terms of feasibility, sustainability, and adaptability for long-term settlement.

Source selection

Data were gathered from three main types of sources:

1. Academic publications – peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers accessed through databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, using search terms including “extraterrestrial architecture,” “space habitat design,” “Martian construction materials,” and “sustainable space colonization.”
2. Institutional and agency reports – official documents and technical briefs from organizations such as NASA, ESA, and private space enterprises (e.g., SpaceX, AI SpaceFactory).
3. Design proposals and prototypes – documented case studies from architectural firms and interdisciplinary collaborations, including NASA’s Mars exploration architecture, AI SpaceFactory’s MARSHA habitat, and BIG Architects’ Mars Science City.

Selection criteria included:

1. Relevance to long-term human habitation in extraterrestrial environments.
2. Inclusion of explicit architectural design elements (material choice, structural form, construction method).
3. Availability of technical or environmental data to assess feasibility.

Data extraction and thematic analysis

Each selected source was analyzed to identify key information on environmental conditions, proposed materials and construction methods, settlement typologies, and sustainability strategies such as recycling, autonomous construction, and renewable energy use. The findings were organized into four thematic categories corresponding to the Results and Discussion section:

1. Environmental challenges (Section 3.3)
2. Construction materials and in-situ resource utilization (Section 3.4)
3. Architectural design concepts and typologies (Sections 3.5–3.6)
4. Lessons from historical and contemporary mission proposals (Sections 3.1–3.2)

Method–result connection

The results presented in Section 3 directly reflect the outcomes of this literature review and thematic synthesis

1. Historical mission proposals were analyzed to identify lessons on scalability, infrastructure reuse, and interdisciplinary collaboration
2. Environmental and material data informed evaluation of construction feasibility and habitat resilience.
3. Case studies served as comparative examples illustrating how theoretical designs have been translated into physical prototypes.

By structuring the research process in this way, the methodology ensures a clear and traceable connection between the stated research goal, the data sources analyzed, and the conclusions drawn.

After the Apollo 11 Moon landing, people started to more objectively visualize life there and tried to explore technological aspects of it. NASA arranged a research program for engineers, planners, astrophysicists and other disciplines to consider the options about the settlements in space. At the time, these scientists collaborated with leading science fiction authors and created huge, space-borne spinning systems that could sustain mankind in space.       

As a result, they were familiar typologies that swirled around the edges to create artificial gravity. It was the cross section of structures with landscape elements in large spherical spaces. These mega structures would be placed in locations where Earth and Moon gravitational forces were equivalent. This position should provide security for the city. The initiative was a lack of field connectivity, an approach to adaptation to world conditions, but it was an effective start by asking a few questions, such as how to research a completely artificial world, how to prevent marginalization. The whole world is artificial, what is "soil", and how do we build these structures? He started to ask questions like. To this end, it has become an effective case study. It offers a deeper analysis of what it means for people to live outside the world’s atmosphere.

Mission proposals in 20th century

The first person who made a scientific study of a Mars mission was Wernher von Braun. The mission consists of a fleet of ten spacecraft going to Mars. With a total crew of 70 and carrying three-winged surface excursion ships that would land horizontally on the surface of Mars. From 1957 to 1965, General Atomics worked on Project Orion. It was a proposal for a nuclear pulse propulsion spacecraft. Orion was designed to be able to transport large payloads. When we compared chemical rocketry, making crewed missions to Mars and the outer planets feasible, that was an extremely high loads to transport them. One of the early vehicle designs was intended to send a payload of 800 tons to Mars Orbit.

NASA reviewed the lunar and Mars exploration mission as a potential tracking of the International Space Station. This is the Agency’s proposal of a long-term strategy to complete the Space Station “as a critical next step in all our space efforts”, returning to the Moon to form a lasting foundation, to send astronauts to Mars. The research was violently condemned as extremely complex and costly. Congress canceled all support for human discovery beyond Earth orbit. In the 1990s, NASA developed the Mars exploration architecture with many people and teams on a conceptual level. NASA Design Reference Task 3.0 (DRM 3.0) was one of the projects developed to encourage further thinking and concept development.¹

 Over the past 50 years since the landing of Apollo Moon, launch costs have dropped. New sources have been discovered, and a legal framework has been created to guarantee ownership of these sources. Thanks to such developments, a wave appeared under the name of a new space architecture proposal infrastructure. With new innovations, scientists announced that Mars is the most similar planet in our solar system after Earth. So, the designers started to come up with ideas especially for Mars. Thanks to scientists who have discovered that it is the most habitable planet, Mars has become the center of design suggestions.

Mission proposals in 21st century

Bruce Mackenzie, a space activist in 1988, made a proposal at a presentation at the International Space Development Conference. He was proposing a one-way trip to Mars. Mackenzie suggested that the mission could be accomplished with less effort and cost without returning to Earth. In 2006, former NASA engineer James C. McLane III originally proposed a plan to colonize Mars into a one-way space travel for a single person.

Three separate phases contribute to a truly viable colonization of the idea. The first phase is the “Earth Reliant” phase, already under way. The International Space Station continues through 2024 to validate deep space technology and examine the effects on human bodies of long-term space missions. The second phase, “Proving Ground”, moves away from the Earth's dependency and for many of the tasks it undertakes. The third phase is the transition to Earth's independence. The “Earth Independent” process involves longer-term surface missions with only daily maintenance surface habitat and the collection of Martian coal, water and construction material tools.

Since 2016, SpaceX has publicly advocated the construction of a high-capacity transport network as an incentive for the colonization of Mars. The first launch vehicle was designed to be reusable as a concept. It was a large reusable rocket with an orbit refueling star ship or gas tanker. The aim is to develop technology and infrastructure so that the first people to go to Mars can leave early in 2024.

Space architecture focused more on short-term exploration projects in the past. It focused on projects such as space stations, exploration convoys, financed by engineering and world space agencies. Space is no longer limited to these. Space has now become an investment sector. It has created a lucrative area for many wealthy businessmen, investors, as well as many experts from various fields. Thanks to extraterrestrial engineering and architecture, everyone came together to win the race in the 21st Century modern space race. Space architecture has acquired a particular significance by including the construction of habitats. It's not only about the space race, but it's still seen as a potential solution to the overpopulation problem that we're facing on our planet (Figure 1).

Figure 1 A graphic that compares the environmental aspects of the planets.

Extraterrestrial environment

Life existed on Earth because of its atmosphere, proximity to the sun, and numerous other ideal conditions that allowed living things to survive and grow. Space is a habitat which is very difficult for living creatures to survive due to its extreme conditions such as: oxygen insufficiency, high radiation levels, deficiency of flora and fauna, the extreme difference in temperature between day and night, microgravity, etc. Architects are facing these problems when designing in an extraterrestrial environment. To better explain these environmental challenges in architectural design, we should examine them in detail.

First, water on Earth was precious but now, in space, it has become more important. So, we are incredibly careful about the way we use water. There is no ready-to-use water, potable water is produced in the local soil by heating ice, where water is filtered, and dry soil returned to its roots. A portion of that produced water is stored while a portion is used for oxygen production. This scarcity forced us to reconsider all the water-related processes from direct consumption to agriculture. Construction Industry is also affected by this, for example, one of our main building materials which is concrete needs a lot of water in the formwork process. We revisited our former material set and construction methods and came up with new materials such as Martian concrete and new construction techniques such as digital fabrication when we started to make designs in space.²

Secondly, because there would be no fossil in Space, it is necessary to think of an energy source as an alternative. Solar, wind, and nuclear power are potential alternative energy sources for fossil fuels. Architects already knew that we must use renewable energy in Space before the colonization, one of the earliest proposals was from Mars-One, they investigate this issue specific to the planet of Mars. It proposes electrical energy generated by applying thin and flexible photovoltaic solar film panels that can be rolled up for compact transport to Mars (Figures 2–5).

Figure 2 MARSHA 3D printing area that prototype produced.

Figure 3 MARSHA exterior visual.

Figure 4 MARSHA 3D printing of the prototype ground plan.

Figure 5 MARSHA upper plan.

Lastly, the atmosphere is an issue in space because it is different from our former atmosphere, it includes toxic gases and high levels of radiation. To solve this issue, architects must design structures that protect human beings from these gases and radiation. After a series of research, the best solutions appeared to be rigid metal or plastic-based structures, expandable structures, underground tunnels, and brick and rock structures. In 2012, long before the colonization started, an architectural firm called Foster+ Partners designed a shell, which had a porous, closed cellular structure inspired by natural biological systems, protected future inhabitants from meteorites, gamma radiation and variations in high temperature.

Construction & materials in extraterrestrial environment

The construction process works differently outside of the Earth. Architects are thinking more intelligently about how resources can be used because they are limited. There is no room for overconsumption and waste due to the amount of rocket fuel required to transfer a kilogram of something into space. Architects must use the available resources on the site in the construction process to reduce the construction cost and save time. All the configurations and systems must be as efficient as possible (Figure 6).

Figure 6 The sulfur-based concrete before compression testing and the result.

In addition to in-situ material usage, architects also use technological developments like robotics and artificial intelligence to optimize the construction process. These construction methods are protecting humans from the dangerous conditions of the construction site. For example, the surface of the Moon is surrounded by a thin layer of Moon dust which consists of microscopic grains which can slice into a human being's lungs if one breathed in. So, an autonomous construction without including humans became the new form of construction. NASA has been focused on this issue since 2018. A 3D-Printed Habitat Challenge competition is organized to find the technology required for additive manufacturing to build sustainable housing solutions for Space.

AI Space Factory has won the MARSHA project competition. They were able to construct a model of it. They built a model just by using 3D-printing technology. They used their own material as a “Martian polymer”. The material which is biopolymer is made from organic materials on the soil of Mars. It proved itself to be a super-strong building material, that is easily available on land and a more sustainable alternative to concrete and steel, which generates 9% of global carbon emissions.³ It is much more efficient to use a biopolymer rather than concrete because it does not need water in construction. It becomes a desirable feature where the water is so scarce. This product has the benefit of being recyclable as well, it can be repressed after demolition. We need to recycle as much as we can when we are living in an extraterrestrial environment. 3D printing allows recycling materials such as discarded waste, regolith on the planet’s surface, human waste, etc. and build habitats.

In addition to developing new materials, scientists also looked at new ways to adapt building materials already used on Earth. One of the most notable outcomes is “Martian concrete,” developed to reduce reliance on scarce water resources in space. Unlike conventional cement mixes, this alternative uses Martian soil combined with molten sulfur, making it fully recyclable and well-suited to Mars’s atmospheric conditions.² Atmospheric pressure and temperature ranges on Mars are ideal for hosting structures of this sulfur-based concrete. Furthermore, the material can be melted and re-formed, reducing the cost and effort of demolition and reconstruction in a growing Martian colony.

Extraterrestrial architecture

The idea of space colonization has continued to fascinate, even after Earth’s first journey to the Moon. Today, it is increasingly regarded by designers and architects as a field of exploration that may lead to entirely new forms of housing. At the same time, humanity faces pressing challenges on Earth, including rapid population growth, the climate crisis, and global health emergencies. These issues highlight the possibility that our planet may eventually become insufficient to support human life, while also posing significant architectural and technological obstacles.⁴ Consequently, serious consideration of extraterrestrial alternatives has gained momentum. Furthermore, emerging architectural considerations for shaping future cities—such as sustainability, adaptability, and resilience—offer valuable lessons for the design of extraterrestrial settlements as well (Figures 7–10).⁵

Figure 7 The shapes of space settlements.

Figure 8 Diagrammatic section of mars science city.

Figure 9 Mars science city greenhouse interior.

Figure 10 Inflatable domes by BIG architecture.

There is some data now available that gives us a huge opening to design, making some proposals for outside our planet. Even if nobody has gone to Mars, many ongoing projects already explore how we design, construct and live. The most critical point is to explore a very unusual environment and material to construct. Besides, for an architect the most important aspect is the site to design and the aspects of the environment. Establishing a community isolated from our Earth-bound resource infrastructure is going to be extremely difficult and challenging. So, making a design in a completely artificial human survival ecosystem where nothing exists will be crucial.

Building forms

When mankind steps on Mars or any other planets, we are separated from our industries to supply materials for building. In prehistoric times, humanity will return to the same situation in terms of architecture. In addition, they will have the instruments and few basic materials. It is also important to appeal to early settlers and to look at precedents. This review is the basis of every ongoing Mars project.

Humanity is now a species in Space with advanced technical expertise. Besides, we need to use our existing technologies to consider the fundamental settlement typologies. For example, prehistoric people have stacked ice cubes to shelter themselves and collect pigments to protect themselves. The technique we use in 3D printing works the same as this logic. As a common construction technique, 3D printers are recommended for Mars projects. Ceylan⁶ notes that when a space colony is considered in terms of shape, it is often composed of an axial formation rotating around a central axis, with spheres, cylinders, and tori being the most appropriate forms for such designs.⁶

Considering that 3D printing method can fit any form and program that is unique to its cat, how useful it is. In addition to the easy construction benefits of 3D printing, it also gives architects the freedom to find forms. However, the limitation may be radiation safety. The systems cut out should be considered to guarantee absolute radiation protection. However, it has the same benefits as 3D printed objects. Like the provision of flexibility in shape and programming and construction of local materials, but with no daily light and views it is problematic (Figure 11).

Figure 11 Expansion strategy in the project of mars science city.

Another type of structure is the most common inflatable dome. This structure has been used since lunar habitat projects. It suggests a horizontal spread over the foundation of Martia. Benefits include air pressure, oxygen, construction atmosphere, thermal comfort and above all a daylight field that allows plant growth in greenhouses. It can be said that this is the better type of building compared to the other, but it should not be ignored that the key requirements, such as radiation protection, meteorite safety and structural stability, are missing.

As with the BIG Architects’ Mars Science City project, hybrid approaches have been proposed to combine the advantages of different building processes. Initially, the design featured inflatable flexible domes to provide pressurized living spaces. These were complemented by deep voids for optimum radiation safety and by the use of 3D printing with local materials to allow greater expansion flexibility.⁷ In this way, the project integrates the benefits of inflatable structures, underground protection, and additive manufacturing to create a more sustainable and resilient extraterrestrial habitat.

The most important point here is to consider whether there is a method to expand and strengthen the relations between the units. Also, whatever is built is that the structure can be expanded regardless of shape. Between 2025 and 2030, Elon Musk announced that with only 12 astronauts supplied the Golden Heart leading spacecraft, as well as cargo transport equipment and the materials needed to build a fuel plant for potential flights. NASA announced in 2019 that more than 12,000 people applied for jobs. After this successful mission, only the expectations of those who dream of what can happen on Mars are revealed. After these events, we understand the role and importance of architects. Architects not only design buildings but also play a major role in human life. In this way, all the functioning and dynamics of humanity are affected. Architects must always be forward-looking and plan the future for the next generations. The creation of a live, sustainable community for the selected population on the faraway planet will not only require unique technological solutions and engineering but also new architectural systems.

This study investigates how architectural design can effectively respond to the unprecedented challenges posed by extraterrestrial environments, with a particular focus on Mars, which is widely regarded as the most promising candidate for long-term human settlement. Employing a narrative literature review, the research synthesized insights from historical mission concepts, institutional reports, and contemporary architectural proposals to assess the feasibility of creating safe, sustainable, and adaptive habitats beyond Earth. The findings, directly reflecting the thematic analysis outlined in Section 2, indicate that environmental constraints demand a radical rethinking of resource management, particularly in terms of water use, energy generation, and atmospheric protection. Material innovations such as sulfur-based Martian concrete and biopolymer composites offer viable alternatives to conventional construction methods, while emerging typologies—ranging from inflatable domes to hybrid 3D-printed structures—demonstrate how design can balance human needs with the realities of hostile planetary conditions.

By explicitly linking design strategies to the environmental and material data analyzed, this study underscores the pivotal role of architecture in transforming speculative visions into practical frameworks for extraterrestrial habitation. The results highlight that architecture extends far beyond the creation of physical shelters: it is central to fostering long-term resilience, psychological well-being, and cohesive community life in extreme environments.

Ultimately, the study concludes that the future of extraterrestrial architecture cannot rest solely on technological and material innovation. Its success will rely on the development of a design philosophy grounded in responsibility, adaptability, and foresight. Such an approach not only ensures the survival of human life in extraterrestrial settings but also guards against repeating the unsustainable practices that have endangered life on Earth. In this light, extraterrestrial architecture emerges not only as a technological pursuit but also as an ethical and cultural endeavor, requiring a forward-looking vision capable of shaping sustainable futures across planets.

None.

None.

There are no conflicts to declare.

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